CDC Guidelines for Prescribing Opioids for Pain — United States 2022

Publication Date: November 4, 2022

Last Updated: April 19, 2023

Determining Whether or Not to Initiate Opioids for Pain

Recommendation 1

Nonopioid therapies are at least as effective as opioids for many common types of acute pain. Clinicians should maximize use of nonpharmacologic and nonopioid pharmacologic therapies as appropriate for the specific condition and patient and only consider opioid therapy for acute pain if benefits are anticipated to outweigh risks to the patient. Before prescribing opioid therapy for acute pain, clinicians should discuss with patients the realistic benefits and known risks of opioid therapy. (3, B)

Implementation Considerations

Nonopioid therapies are at least as effective as opioids for many common acute pain conditions, including low back pain, neck pain, pain related to other musculoskeletal injuries (e.g., sprains, strains, tendonitis, and bursitis), pain related to minor surgeries typically associated with minimal tissue injury and mild postoperative pain (e.g., simple dental extraction), dental pain, kidney stone pain, and headaches including episodic migraine.
Clinicians should maximize use of nonopioid pharmacologic (e.g., topical or oral NSAIDs, acetaminophen) and nonpharmacologic (e.g., ice, heat, elevation, rest, immobilization, or exercise) therapies as appropriate for the specific condition.
Opioid therapy has an important role for acute pain related to severe traumatic injuries (including crush injuries and burns), invasive surgeries typically associated with moderate to severe postoperative pain, and other severe acute pain when NSAIDs and other therapies are contraindicated or likely to be ineffective.
When diagnosis and severity of acute pain warrant the use of opioids, clinicians should prescribe immediate-release opioids (see Recommendation 3) at the lowest effective dose (see Recommendation 4) and for no longer than the expected duration of pain severe enough to require opioids (see Recommendation 6).
Clinicians should prescribe and advise opioid use only as needed (e.g., hydrocodone 5 mg/acetaminophen 325 mg, one tablet not more frequently than every 4 hours as needed for moderate to severe pain) rather than on a scheduled basis (e.g., one tablet every 4 hours) and encourage and recommend an opioid taper if opioids are taken around the clock for more than a few days (see Recommendation 6).
If patients already receiving opioids long term require additional medication for acute pain, nonopioid medications should be used when possible and, if additional opioids are required (e.g., for superimposed severe acute pain), they should be continued only for the duration of pain severe enough to require additional opioids, returning to the patient’s baseline opioid dosage as soon as possible, including a taper to baseline dosage if additional opioids were used around the clock for more than a few days (see Recommendation 6).
Clinicians should ensure that patients are aware of expected benefits of, common risks of, serious risks of, and alternatives to opioids before starting or continuing opioid therapy and should involve patients meaningfully in decisions about whether to start opioid therapy.

315372

Opioid Medication for Acute Pain

Patient education and discussion before starting outpatient opioid therapy are critical so that patient preferences and values can be understood and used to inform clinical decisions. Clinicians should ensure that patients are aware of expected benefits of, common risks of, serious risks of, and alternatives to opioids before starting or continuing opioid therapy and should involve patients in decisions about whether to start opioid therapy. Essential elements for communication and discussion with patients before prescribing outpatient opioid therapy for acute pain include the following:

Advise patients that short-term opioid use can lead to unintended long-term opioid use and of the importance of working toward planned discontinuation of opioid use as soon as feasible, including a plan to appropriately taper opioids as pain resolves if opioids have been used around the clock for more than a few days (see Recommendation 6).
Review communication mechanisms and protocols patients can use to tell clinicians of severe or uncontrolled pain and to arrange for timely reassessment and management.
Advise patients about serious adverse effects of opioids, including potentially fatal respiratory depression and development of a potentially serious opioid use disorder (see Recommendation 12) that can cause distress and inability to fulfill major role obligations at work, school, or home.
Advise patients about common effects of opioids, such as constipation, dry mouth, nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, confusion, tolerance, physical dependence, and withdrawal symptoms when stopping opioids. To prevent constipation associated with opioid use, advise patients to increase hydration and fiber intake and to maintain or increase physical activity as they are able. Prophylactic pharmacologic therapy (e.g., a stimulant laxative such as senna, with or without a stool softener) might be needed to ensure regular bowel movements if opioids are used for more than a few days. Stool softeners or fiber laxatives without another laxative should be avoided. To minimize withdrawal symptoms, clinicians should provide and discuss an opioid tapering plan when opioids will be used around the clock for more than a few days (see Recommendation 6). Limiting opioid use to the minimum needed to manage pain (e.g., taking the opioid only when needed if needed less frequently than every 4 hours and the prescription is written for every 4 hours as needed for pain) can help limit development of tolerance and therefore withdrawal after opioids are discontinued.
If formulations are prescribed that combine opioids with acetaminophen, advise patients of the risks of taking additional over-the-counter products containing acetaminophen.
To help patients assess when a dose of opioids is needed, explain that the goal is to reduce pain to make it manageable rather than to eliminate pain.
Discuss effects that opioids might have on a person’s ability to safely operate a vehicle or other machinery, particularly when opioids are initiated or when other central nervous system depressants (e.g., benzodiazepines or alcohol) are used concurrently.
Discuss the potential for workplace toxicology testing programs to detect therapeutic opioid use.
Discuss increased risks for opioid use disorder, respiratory depression, and death at higher dosages, along with the importance of taking only the amount of opioids prescribed (i.e., not taking more opioids than prescribed or taking them more often).
Review increased risks for respiratory depression when opioids are taken with benzodiazepines, other sedatives, alcohol, nonprescribed or illicit drugs (e.g., heroin), or other opioids (see Recommendations 8 and 11).
Discuss risks to household members and other persons if opioids are intentionally or unintentionally shared with others for whom they are not prescribed, including the possibility that others might experience overdose at the same or lower dosage than prescribed for the patient and that young children and pets are susceptible to unintentional ingestion. Discuss storage of opioids in a secure and preferably locked location, options for safe disposal of unused opioids (154), and the value of having naloxone available.
Discuss planned use of precautions to reduce risks, including naloxone for overdose reversal (see Recommendation 8) and clinician use of PDMP information (see Recommendation 9).

Selecting Opioids and Determining Opioid Dosages

Recommendation 3

When starting opioid therapy for acute, subacute, or chronic pain, clinicians should prescribe immediate-release opioids instead of extended-release and long-acting (ER/LA) opioids. (4, A)